While textile artifacts often attract attention for their patterns and weaving techniques, and scholars have extensively studied their surface colors and historical contexts, the sources of dyes used in ancient textiles are rarely highlighted in museum exhibitions.
Leveraging modern analytical instruments and nearly two decades of research, over 30 Eurasian textiles from the 17th to early 20th centuries were analyzed to decode the secrets behind their colors. The results revealed both distinct regional characteristics and widespread universality in dye usage across Europe and Asia during that era.
Through artifact displays and dye identification, the exhibition showcases typical dyes prevalent across various regions of Eurasia. Some dyes exhibit strong regional specificity—such as orchil lichen, larkspur, and pagoda tree buds—while others, like sappanwood and safflower, were used transcontinentally. Some dyes, though derived from different botanical sources (e.g., tannins and indigo), ultimately produced similar pigments on fabric.
By the mid-20th century, synthetic dyes had largely replaced natural ones in the textile industry, marking an irreversible shift. Today, however, a growing societal pursuit of nature, sustainability, and harmony has led to the revival of natural dyes in niche applications, reflecting contemporary values.
European Dyes: Past and Present
Eurasian dyes, broadly categorized as either animal- or plant-based, often relied on mineral mordants such as alum and iron sulfate. Animal dyes—extracted primarily from insects—produced a range of hues: cochineal and lac insects yielded reds under acidic conditions, while gallnuts combined with iron sulfate created gray-blacks.
Plant dyes, essential to natural dyeing, were extracted from pigment-rich parts of local flora: heartwood, stems, and roots (e.g., sappanwood, madder); flowers and buds (e.g., safflower, pagoda tree buds); and fruits or peels (e.g., oak galls, walnut husks). In addition to using mordants and pH modifiers (such as smoked plum and plant ash) to enrich colors, dyers also layered different dyes to create secondary hues—purples, greens, and browns—by leveraging botanical interactions.
In the late 16th century, Spanish explorers introduced American cochineal to Europe, where its superior pigment rapidly supplanted the native Kermes vermilio. Sappanwood from Southeast Asia and Indian indigo also entered European markets around the 17th century. As leading maritime powers, Britain and the Netherlands became Europe’s dyeing centers. Under Louis XIV, France even issued textile regulations mandating specific dyes for wool.
In early 17th-century Europe, American cochineal, madder, and sappanwood were used for reds; weld was the primary yellow dye, and turmeric served as a base. Purples were created by overdyeing blue and red or by using orchil lichen. The 18th century’s scientific awakening, inspired by Newton’s color theory, sparked growing interest in dye chemistry. The invention of the spinning jenny increased demand for vivid colors. Innovations such as acidic indigo (1740), synthetic aluminum sulfate, and Mauveine (1856) gradually dismantled the dominance of natural dyes.
Asian Dyes: A Tapestry of Cultural Identity
In contrast to Europe’s relatively standardized dye practices, Asia’s dye traditions reflect profound regional diversity.
In Central Asia, exemplified by Iran (Persia), renowned for its carpet weaving, dye usage closely mirrored the industry’s rise and fall. During the Safavid Dynasty (16th to mid-18th century), intricate patterns demanded premium dyes. A subsequent decline was reversed under the Qajars (late 18th century). For 300 years, Persian dyers employed madder (red), larkspur (yellow), and a combination of pomegranate rind, gallnut, or walnut husk (black), along with Indian lac and indigo.
In South Asia, few pre-16th-century textiles from ancient India have survived. Yet nearly 20 natural dyes continue to be used in village workshops today, preserved through generations of traditional craftsmanship.
Southeast Asia exhibits a fusion of Indian and Chinese influences, layered with distinct indigenous practices.
In East Asia, Qing Dynasty China (17th–20th century) inherited and refined Ming dyeing techniques. The Ming-era Tiangong Kaiwu documented various dyes and methods, while the Qing Book of Textiles recorded dye recipes from the Jiangsu-Zhejiang region. Qing palace archives meticulously listed color names and dye ratios, with Jiangnan emerging as the heart of imperial dye production. Neighboring Japan and Korea adopted many Chinese dyeing techniques before the 17th century, adapting them to suit local tastes and materials.